Solving the Problem of Limited Resources

Even the newest computer that has been carefully selected and is regularly serviced cannot keep pace with constantly growing requirements. Sooner or later, you will face problems caused by inadequate performance for solving tasks. When there are no more resources for increasing the performance by optimizing computer hardware and software, radical measures must be employed.

Some people solve the problem of insufficient performance by purchasing a new computer; others try to upgrade an existing one. Both approaches involve financial expense, which can be significant. In addition, insufficient performance can occur on relatively new and workable computers, even those purchased less than a year ago!

Philosophy of Hardware Overclocking

The complexity of system programs and application software is steadily increasing. Each individual can choose, purchase, and fine-tune a computer. Some time later, the PC user inevitably encounters performance problems when attempting to complete new tasks. After resources for improving computer performance by optimization have been exhausted, the user must take a more radical approach, such as purchasing a new computer, upgrading the existing one, or even using overclocked modes.

Computer performance and its functionality strongly depend on the parameters of the components in computer system and on their coordinated operation. It is not sufficient to choose a computer and determine its hardware components and software configuration. A computer must be fine-tuned and customized if you want to achieve maximum performance from its components and maximum efficiency from its functional capabilities. Furthermore, like any complicated device, a contemporary computer needs maintenance and service, and its software and hardware components must be used correctly.

If you ignore these requirements, an expensive contemporary computer will operate less efficiently than earlier and significantly cheaper models that have been optimally tuned.

Processors comprising a billion transistors

Processors comprising a billion transistors are expected to be released in 2007. As Intel Chief Executive Craig Barrett mentioned in a report at an Intel Developer Forum (IDF) session, within 15 years, advances in semiconductor technology are expected to enable processor architects to implement products with parameters that include the following:

CPU clock frequency of 30 GHz

1 trillion instructions per second

2 billion transistors

Transistor size of 10 nanometers (0.01 micrometers)

Note IDF is the largest technological conference for leading developers in which representatives of the mass media participate. IDF sessions are held several times each year in countries around the world. At these sessions, leading manufacturers discuss new and emerging technologies and products in the electronic industry. Traditionally, spring and autumn sessions take place in California. Other sessions often are held outside the United States.

The central element of the PC is the processor

Personal computers are created with relatively cheap components. The central element of the PC is the processor. The first microprocessor was designed and manufactured by Intel engineers, and this historic event began an era of cheap microprocessors. This first processor was named Intel 4004. Parameters of this key component were relatively modest: a clock frequency of 108 kHz, 0.06 MIPS (millions of instructions per second, or 60,000 operations per second), 2,300 transistors, 10 micrometer (μm) technology, a 4-bit bus, and 640-byte addressable memory. Still, it was the first chip used for arithmetical operations, and the computing power of this processor exceeded that of the ENIAC, the world’s first electronic computer. The Intel 4004 microprocessor was officially released on Nov. 15, 1971.

Intel Celeron 2 GHz processor
Since that time, processors have become much more powerful and sophisticated. The number of transistors has increased thousands of times, the clock frequency has grown significantly, and the potential capabilities of the processors have been extended dramatically.

Processors with different architecture and power have been the basis for several generations of computers. This allowed for the creation of a variety of computers; it also provided a foundation for transition from centralized to decentralized information processing. Within a short period, billions of computers have been manufactured, ensuring the possibility of decentralized data processing. This factor made possible the wide use of an enormous number of computers in practically all spheres of human activity. As a result, the working style of millions of people has changed dramatically. Even more importantly, the development priorities of contemporary society have changed. Information has become an object of labor, as well as an important and valuable product. In the industrial societies of economically advanced countries, about 90% of total profits are related to information processing, accumulation, and sales. The efficiency of these activities strongly depends on the functional capabilities of computers, which, in turn, are dependent on the advancement of technology, information infrastructure, and the computer literacy of the population. These factors have top priority in the evolution of contemporary society and have attracted close attention from its members.

Evolution of the ATA Interface

In contrast to processors, video adapters, and RAM, new hard-disk models retain compatibility with earlier models for a long time. For example, ATA100 (100 MB/sec) disks can be connected to ATA66 (66 MB/sec) and even to ATA33 (33 MB/sec) controllers. However, with such connections, you cannot get the maximum speed potential. Furthermore, it is impossible to achieve the full compatibility of Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA) devices with controllers implementing Serial ATA150 (150 MB/sec) and Serial ATA300 (300 MB/sec) interfaces. The same relates to the compatibility between Serial ATA150 devices and parallel interface ATA100/66/33 controllers.

Table 2.5: Evolution of the ATA Interface

Bus	Throughput (MB/sec)	Year of release
ATA16	16.7	1996
ATA33	33.3	1997
ATA66	66.7	1999
ATA100	100	2000
ATA133	133	2001
Serial ATA150	150	2002
Serial ATA300	300	2004 [*]
Serial ATA600	600	2007[*]
[*]anticipated

Evolution of RAM

Firstly I would like to thank you for my lecturer Mr Terry, I wish I get A tomorrow.

RAM type	Year of release
FPM DRAM	1992
EDO DRAM	1994
SDRAM (SDR SDRAM)	1997
DRDRAM	1999
DDR SDRAM	2001
DDR II SDRAM	2004 [*]
[*]anticipated

Each RAM type had several versions with different frequency and timing parameters. For example, Single Data Rate (SDR) Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory (SDRAM), usually referred to as just SDRAM, has modules corresponding to PC66, PC100, and PC133 specifications. (The digits in the specification names designate their maximum operating clock frequencies: 66 MHz, 100 MHz, and 133 MHz.) Double Data Rate (DDR) SDRAM contains modules designed to operate at frequencies of 100 MHz, 133 MHz, 166 MHz, and 200 MHz. DDR SDRAM ensures a data rate twice that of SDR SDRAM, even at the same frequencies. DDR SDRAM modules are intended to operate at 2.5 V, SDR SDRAM at 3.3 V, and Extended Data Output (EDO) SDRAM at 3.3 V or 5 V. Compatibility is complicated by different form factors for modules released at different stages of microprocessor evolution. Examples of common form factors of the RAM module include Single In-line Pin Package (SIPP), Single In-line Memory Module (SIMM), Dual In-line Memory Module (DIMM), and the RIMM memory module. (RIMM often is referred to incorrectly, with “R” standing for “Rambus.” However, the term RIMM is not an acronym; it has been trademarked.) Each form factor has several variants with different sizes and different numbers of pins.

From the Industrial Era to the Information Age

Recent advances in technology have rapidly pushed humanity from an industrial age to a period that can be characterized mainly as informational. Computers gradually have become cheaper and more readily available. Their power and functional capabilities increase at a rapid pace. All these factors allow them to be used in practically every field of human activity. However, efficient usage of modern computers requires both advanced infrastructure and a certain level of user skill. These elements are essential to making the most of the high potential of computer hardware.

The advent of calculating devices during the industrial age was a logical stage of evolution: Science, technology, and industry require a high processing speed of intensive information flows. At first, the problem was alleviated by the creation of data-processing centers. These were based on sophisticated information-processing centers, which were very powerful (for that time) and, consequently, rather expensive. These centers were serviced, maintained, and supported by numerous highly qualified professionals. Recall the dinosaur machines of the 1960s and 1970s, known as mainframes: A typical mainframe was capable of processing 100,000 to 2 million simple 32-bit register-to-register operations per second. The amount of Random Access Memory (RAM) installed on such machines varied from several hundred kilobytes to several megabytes. Although such parameters are laughable today, they were impressive at that time.

A data-processing revolution took place about two decades ago, with the arrival of personal computers oriented toward individuals. The user-friendly interface (both hardware and software) of PCs significantly lowered the level of user knowledge and skill from that required by previous-generation computers.